Grammar, Style, Usage, and Mechanics
Grammar: The way words are put together to make meaning. This includes structure of a sentence (syntax), the different forms of words (like tenses), and how the words in a sentence work together.
Active and Passive Verbs (with exercise)
Articles
Subject-Verb Agreement (with exercise)
Verb Consistency
Comma Splices
Apostrophes
Sentence Fragments
Run-on Sentences
Wordiness
Vague
Style: The unique way an author chooses to express themselves. This includes tone and voice. This includes formal and informal writing in courses.
Mechanics: The technical "rule" bits of writing, often referring to spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and numbers.
Grammar
Fix Flow and Clarity
Old-to-New Technique: As a writer, it is your responsibility to guide readers through your ideas. But readers may not share your background knowledge on the topic, so take your reader from familiar concepts first into new ideas. Old-to-new does not imply that you guess what your reader already knows. Rather, consider anything you have already mentioned in your writing to be old, and all concepts you include for the first time to be new. Once a new idea has been provided, it then becomes an old idea and can serve as the foundation for future sentences and paragraphs.
Sentence Variety and Effect: Create variety in your sentences by (1) varying the types of sentences you use, (2) varying the sentence length, and (3) varying the way a sentence begins. The choices you make can alter the effect you create for your reader.
Parallelism: Use parallel sentence construction. (Phrase similar ideas in similar ways.) To ensure parallelism, repeat articles and verb tenses with each item in a series.
Tying Ideas Together: Another important way to create cohesion is to tie ideas together by using one or more of the following techniques:
- Use internal summaries to remind the reader of points you have already made.
- Example: Four possible solutions to the problem have been outlined, but it is also important to consider flaws to these ides.
- Use pronouns and pointing words (such as this, these, etc.) to refer to nouns mentioned previously. Make sure the reference is clear.
- Example 1: The suggestion was very creative. It saved the company several thousand dollars.
- Example 2: Buying a house can lead to a lot of unchecked stress. This stress can affect a buyer's ability to remain realistic of financial limitations.
- Repeat a key word or phrase.
- Example: Several employees participated in the health fair. Of the events the company sponsors during the year, the health fair is one of the most important.
- Insert transitional words or phrases such as therefore, similarly, however, or consequently to connect one idea to another and help prepare readers for upcoming shifts.
- Example 1: Four-day work weeks produce loyalty and satisfaction in employees. Similarly, increases in paid time off show substantial morale boosts.
- Example 2: I went to the store; however, I did not find the equipment I needed.
Notice in each of the above examples how tying ideas togethers creates clarity. With an internal summary, you keep important ideas in your reader’s mind; pronouns and pointing words offer variety in word choice while connecting your ideas from sentence to sentence; repeating key words creates emphasis and consistency; and transitional words build an expectation that the writer can meet. As a reader, similarly indicates that the next sentence will be validating a previous idea; however shows that the writer is going to “counter” their initial point.
For many more examples, visit: https://writingcenter.uagc.edu/making-your-writing-flow
Transitional Words and Phrases
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For ADDING IDEAS: |
For COMPARING: |
For ELABORATING: |
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also |
likewise |
actually |
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another |
equally |
by extension |
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in fact |
along the same lines |
to put it another way |
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equally important |
similarly |
to put it bluntly |
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moreover |
in comparison |
in short |
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furthermore |
in the same way |
to put it succinctly |
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additionally |
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in other words |
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indeed |
For SHOWING RESULTS: |
ultimately |
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in addition |
accordingly |
basically |
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|
hence |
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For REINFORCING AN IDEA: |
consequently |
For CONCEDING A POINT: |
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especially important |
as a result |
admittedly |
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above all |
thus |
of course |
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most noteworthy |
therefore |
although it is true that |
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especially relevant |
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naturally |
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a significant factor |
For MAKING A CONTRAST: |
granted |
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most of all |
however |
to be sure |
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nevertheless |
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For CITING AN EXAMPLE: |
although |
For CONCLUDING: |
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for example |
conversely |
clearly |
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in other words |
on the contrary |
hence |
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in fact |
notwithstanding |
consequently |
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for instance |
even though |
obviously |
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specifically |
all the same |
therefore |
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after all |
on the other hand |
thus |
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as an illustration |
by contrast |
in short |
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consider |
nonetheless |
all in all |
10 Basic Ways to Improve Your Style in Academic Writing
- Use ACTIVE VOICE
Don't say: "The stepmother's house was cleaned by Cinderella." (Passive.)
Say instead: "Cinderella cleaned the stepmother's house." (Active voice.)
Passive voice construction ("was cleaned") is reserved for those occasions where the "do-er" of the action is unknown.
Example: "Prince Charming saw the glass slipper that was left behind."
- Be DECLARATIVE
Sometimes when someone speaks their opinion, they use an “I” statement at the beginning of the sentence. This allows the person listening to know that the statement is that person’s belief. In academic writing, omitting the “I” statement and just stating the claim can be an effective approach, especially since it's already pretty clear that you, the student, is the one writing because your name is attached to the assignment. (Keep in mind, if a teacher advises you to use “I” or “you,” these rules can be broken.)
Don’t say: I believe the Writing Center is a good place to learn.
Say instead: The Writing Center is a good place to learn.
Notice the difference in tone between these two statements. Often, an “I” statement can be turned into a declarative sentence by omitting the “I.” As the writer, you want to establish your ethos, so the reader will believe that you are knowledgeable about your subject. Avoid using statements that show doubt and avoid self-deprecating comments about your lack of knowledge of a subject. To be more authoritative, support the statements you make with evidence.
- Mix it up in terms of PUNCTUATION
Here are a few commonly misused punctuation marks that a lot of people aren't sure about:
The semi-colon (;) separates two complete sentences that are complementary.
Example: "She was always covered in cinders from cleaning the fireplace; they called her Cinderella."
The colon (:) is used...
- preceding a list.
Example: "Before her stepmother awoke, Cinderella had three chores to complete: feeding the chickens, cooking breakfast, and doing the wash."
- as a sort of "drum roll," preceding some big revelation.
Example: "One thing fueled the wicked stepmother's hatred for Cinderella: jealousy."
The dash (--) is made by typing two hyphens (-). No spaces go in between the dash and the text. It is used...
- to bracket off some explanatory information.
Example: "Even Cinderella's stepsisters-who were not nearly as lovely or virtuous as Cinderella--were allowed to go to the ball."
- in the "drum roll" sense of the colon.
Example: "Prince Charming would find this mystery lady--even if he had to put the slipper on every other girl in the kingdom."
- Vary your SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Don't say: "Cinderella saw her fairy godmother appear. She was dressed in blue. She held a wand. The wand had a star on it. She was covered in sparkles. Cinderella was amazed. She asked who the woman was. The woman said, 'I am your fairy godmother.' She said she would get Cinderella a dress and a coach. She said she would help Cinderella go to the ball."
Instead say: (there are multiple correct ways to rewrite this, but here's one) "Amazed, Cinderella watched as her fairy godmother appeared. The woman dressed in blue was covered in sparkles and carried a star-shaped wand. Cinderella asked the woman who she was, to which the woman replied, 'I am your fairy godmother." The fairy godmother would get Cinderella a dress and a coach; she would help Cinderella get to the ball."
- Closely related to this, avoid CHOPPINESS
Don't say: "She scrubbed the floors. They were dirty. She used a mop. She sighed sadly. It was as if she were a servant."
Instead say: (again, there are multiple ways to do this) "She scrubbed the dirty floors using a mop, as if she were a servant. She sighed sadly."
- Avoid REPETITION.
Don't say: "The stepsisters were jealous and envious."
Instead say: "The stepsisters were jealous." (...or envious. Pick one.)
- Be CONCISE
Don't say: "The mystery lady was one who every eligible man at the ball admired."
Instead say: "Every eligible man at the ball admired the mystery lady."
Do not use fillers when trying create an academic voice. Some people attempt to imitate academic style by making sentences longer and using filler words. It is not always beneficial to use words that could be seen as filler, such as “very,” “really,” or “literally.” Many adverbs such as these are not beneficial because they add wordiness to a sentence without adding content. Unnecessary wordiness reduces the effectiveness of a sentence.
- Use the VOCABULARY that you know.
Don't always feel you have to use big words. It is always better to be clear and use simple language rather than showing off flashy words you aren't sure about and potentially misusing them. This is not to say, however, that you should settle for very weak vocabulary choices (like "bad" or "big" or "mad").
But also work on expanding your VOCABULARY. When reading, look up words you don't know. See how they're used. Start a list. Incorporate them into your writing as you feel comfortable and as they are appropriate.
- Avoid an opinionated TONE.
To argue a position without sounding opinionated or disrespectful to an opposing view, arguments should utilize standpoints and evidence for support. Counterarguments are important because they show the reader that you understand and respect multiple sides of an argument.
Don’t say: Some people foolishly believe that the earth is flat, but…
Instead say: There are people who have concluded that the earth is flat; however, research shows…
Avoid statements about the opposing group’s reasoning; focus on the logic of their claims and the evidence that supports your argument. A counterargument lets the reader know that you respect the opposing opinion, even if you don’t agree. Limiting adverbs and adjectives can help you achieve a more neutral tone.
- Keep language FORMAL and avoid language of everyday speech.
Don't say: "Cinderella was mellow and good. She never let her stepmother get to her."
Say instead: "Cinderella was mild-mannered and kind. She never let her stepmother affect her high spirits."
To get a sense of academic writing, take a look at academic articles or newspapers. Look at the writing style and the way that statements are organized. Examine details, such as how they present their arguments, specific vocabulary utilized, paragraph transitions, and organization.
Generally, in academic texts, numbers one through nine are spelled out. Larger numbers such as 17 can be displayed numerically; although, writers in business and technical fields may be instructed to use numerical representation for numbers one through nine (1-9). Limit the use of informal sounding contractions such as “wanna,” “gonna,” or “kinda.” Limit the use of informal abbreviations, for example, ASAP instead of “as soon as possible.” Most often, formal writing avoids foul language and everyday colloquialisms. Typically, academic writing avoids the use of the second person, or “you,” to address the reader. Speaking to the reader in the second person can give the impression that an informal conversation is taking place between people who are familiar with each other, which is not usually the case.
So, essentially, when it comes to working on style, there are three things to remember:
Empower yourself with knowledge.
Learn to punctuate correctly, enhance your vocabulary, etc. Give yourself all the tools there are so that you are free to...
...Mix it up!
Avoid repetition of words and sentence structure. Variance promotes good "flow" and is more interesting for your reader.
"Write to EXPRESS, not to IMPRESS."
Above all, write actively, clearly, and concisely.
